References: Nature & places

The key studies and reviews behind these practices – organised by page, so you can see exactly what each claim on the site is based on.

Walking in nature

  • Kaplan, S. (1995). “The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework.” Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169–182. The foundational paper behind Attention Restoration Theory, the main explanation this page offers for why nature settles a busy mind.
  • Bratman, G.N., Hamilton, J.P., Hahn, K.S., Daily, G.C. & Gross, J.J. (2015). “Nature experience reduces rumination and subgenual prefrontal cortex activation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(28), 8567–8572. A widely cited study behind this page’s claim that time in nature measurably reduces rumination.
  • Park, B.J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Kasetani, T., Kagawa, T. & Miyazaki, Y. (2010). “The physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan.” Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 15(1), 18–26. The main evidence behind this page’s account of forest bathing and its effect on cortisol and mood.

Mindful walking

  • Nhat Hanh, T. (1996). The Long Road Turns to Joy: A Guide to Walking Meditation. Berkeley: Parallax Press. The source for this page’s account of walking meditation as an everyday practice rather than a monastic one.
  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. New York: Delacorte. Sets out walking meditation as one of the formal practices of the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction programme, alongside sitting meditation and the body scan.
  • Kaplan, S. (1995). “The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework.” Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169–182. The source of the distinction between directed and effortless attention that this page uses to separate mindful walking from walking in nature.
  • Teut, M., Roesner, E.J., Ortiz, M., et al. (2013). “Mindful walking in psychologically distressed individuals: a randomized controlled trial.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2013, 489856. A four-week mindful walking programme that reduced stress and improved mental wellbeing against a waiting-list group – one of the small studies behind this page’s evidence note.
  • Prakhinkit, S., Suppapitiporn, S., Tanaka, H. & Suksom, D. (2014). “Effects of Buddhism walking meditation on depression, functional fitness, and endothelium-dependent vasodilation in depressed elderly.” Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 20(5), 411–416. A small trial finding reduced depressive symptoms in older adults practising traditional walking meditation.

Water: rivers & sea

  • White, M.P., Alcock, I., Wheeler, B.W. & Depledge, M.H. (2013). “Coastal proximity, health and well-being: Results from a longitudinal panel survey.” Health & Place, 23, 97–103. The Exeter University research behind this page’s claim that people living nearer the coast report better wellbeing, even after accounting for income and deprivation.
  • MacKerron, G. & Mourato, S. (2013). “Happiness is greater in natural environments.” Global Environmental Change, 23(5), 992–1000. A large mood-tracking study behind this page’s claim that people consistently rate time near water higher than time in urban settings.
  • Nichols, W.J. (2014). Blue Mind. Little, Brown and Company. The origin of the “Blue Mind” term this page references, and the popular-science work credited with bringing wider attention to this field.

Gardening & tending

  • Rush, B. (1812). Medical Inquiries and Observations upon the Diseases of the Mind. Kimber & Richardson. The primary historical source behind this page’s account of Benjamin Rush documenting the calming effect of garden work on patients with mental illness.
  • Soga, M., Gaston, K.J. & Yamaura, Y. (2017). “Gardening is beneficial for health: A meta-analysis.” Preventive Medicine Reports, 5, 92–99. The main meta-analysis behind this page’s claim that gardening reliably lowers stress and low mood.
  • Whear, R., Coon, J.T., Bethel, A., Abbott, R., Stein, K. & Garside, R. (2014). “What is the impact of using outdoor spaces such as gardens on the physical and mental well-being of those with dementia? A systematic review.” Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 15(10), 697–705. The source behind this page’s note on gardening producing calmer, brighter mood in dementia care.
  • Lowry, C.A., Hollis, J.H., de Vries, A., et al. (2007). “Identification of an immune-responsive mesolimbocortical serotonergic system: Potential role in regulation of emotional behavior.” Neuroscience, 146(2), 756–772. The original mouse study behind the widely repeated Mycobacterium vaccae “natural antidepressant” claim, which this page notes has never been convincingly replicated in humans.